Guy Stiebel

Masada:

The site of Masada is situated on an isolated rock plateau on the western shore of the Dead Sea. Its remote location and natural defences made it an exceptional fortified site during the Second Temple period. According to Josephus, ‘Jonathan the High Priest’ was the first to build a fortress at Masada. So far no remains have been discovered at Masada that can be dated with certainty to the Hasmonean period.

During the struggle for the throne of Judaea between Matthias Antigonus and Herod, the family of the latter came under siege at Masada in the 40BC. Herod (ruled 37-4 BC) made the site a refuge from his internal and external enemies. During his reign, luxurious palaces were built here in addition to well-stocked storerooms, a developed water system and a casemate wall. After the death of Herod in 4 BC and the annexation of Judaea to the Roman Empire in AD 6, the Romans stationed a garrison at Masada.

Following the outbreak of the First Revolt, Masada was seized by a group of Sicarii who targeted the weapons stored in its magazines. The site became a shelter for rebels and refugees under the command of Eleazar Ben Yair. The composition of the rebels’ community was heterogeneous, apparently including Essenes and Samaritans as well. The rebels lived in rooms in the casemate wall and clusters of ‘transit camps’ adjacent to the wall. They constructed ritual buildings, most notably a synagogue and ritual immersion pools. The excavations yielded rare assemblages of culture material attesting to their community life.

In AD 73/4 Masada was the last remaining rebel stronghold in Judaea. Under the command of Flavius Silva, the Legio X Fretensis and a few small auxiliary units laid siege to the mountain. The Roman force, which was deployed in eight camps around the site, constructed a siege wall and a ramp made of earth and wooden supports on the natural slope to the west. Captive Jews brought water to the troops, apparently from ‘Ein-Gedi, as well as food. After several months of siege the Roman managed to breach the wall and set ablaze the wood-and-soil contra-wall. Josephus narrated the dramatic course of the assault and the events of the following night. According to his account, upon entering the fortress the Romans found the bodies of 960 rebels who had committed collective suicide. A Roman garrison remained in the fortress and later at the foot of Masada (Camp F₂) until the beginning of the second century.

The site was abandoned for a few centuries. During the 5^th century AD, a laura was established at Masada. Some scholars identify the Masada monastery with Marda that is noted by the Church fathers. The monastery was seemingly abandoned with the rise of Islam during the 7^th century. 

Excavations

Large-scale excavations were conducted at Masada by the Hebrew University expedition, headed by Prof. Yigael Yadin between 1962-1965. The finds of Yadin’s excavations made the site known world-wide. After a long break, a short season was conducted in 1989 by Prof. Ehud Netzer and in 1995 the excavations at the site were resumed under the direction of Prof. Ehud Netzer and Guy Stiebel on behalf of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Several seasons were conducted at Masada between 1995 and 2000 in the framework of a governmental development project of Masada. In 2001, UNESCO declared Masada a World Heritage Site.

The recent excavations have focused in the Northern Palace complex, the northwestern sector of the site, the Roman breach, the eastern section of the casemate wall, the Byzantine church and water installations throughout the mountain.

The excavations clarified the functions of the entrances to the Northern Palace complex. A large hall decorated with stucco was uncovered near the main entrance, in the south-east part of the complex. This area has contributed significantly to our knowledge of the material culture of Herod’s reign.

In addition, two caves were excavated north of the Synagogue. One was used for storage in the early years of Herod’s reign. A large number of storage jars were discovered in situ under the fragments of the collapsed ceiling. A second small cave was uncovered further to the north. Seemingly used as a shelter for goats, it became a dump. A wide range of finds was uncovered here, most notably of organic nature. This area yielded several important epigraphic finds, among which a Latin titulus pictus of a wine shipment addressed to Herod King of Judaea is noteworthy.

The Roman breach and its environs were excavated for the first time. Direct evidence for the raging battle, including ballista balls, iron trilobate arrowheads and a large number of pebbles that were clearly used as slingshots, was uncovered. A near- complete solid wooden wheel was further found in the breach.

The excavation of the Byzantine church’s courtyard revealed a series of small farming installations. The remains of the glass window of the apse were uncovered, as well as a large number of the roof’s tiles. A sundial and an ostracon in Greek (apparently a letter) were further found in this area.

Military equipment in Roman Palestine

Josephus Flavius writes: ‘The war of the Jews against the Romans – the greatest not only of the wars of our own time, but, so far as accounts have reached us, well nigh of all that ever broke out between cities or nations – has not lacked its historians’ (BJ 1.1). Nor has the bellum Judaicum lacked its archaeologists. Nevertheless, a synthesis that critically incorporates the historical accounts and the militaria finds from these fields of battle has not been offered to date. Based on a large assemblage of military equipment from some 70 sites throughout the country, the majority of which is hitherto unpublished, a typological database of the equipment used in Palestine was formed. The archaeological data have been critically incorporated in the analysis of the historical sources, such as Josephus’s accounts and the rich sub-literary evidence, mainly the rabbinical literature.

Such a study is equivalent to walking on thin ice, as the potential danger of drifting into ‘narrative’ archaeology is real. Nonetheless, the unique combination of the accounts of the battles and the study of the militaria sheds new light upon this turbulent period. The arid climatic conditions in the southern and eastern sectors of the land have contributed to the preservation of rare equipment fittings, made of perishable materials. Additionally, uncommon discoveries, such as the panoply of a Roman legionary, allow us to illustrate the image of the Roman soldier in the East.

The excavations along the walls of several sites have yielded indications for the tactics and types of weapons employed, among which are remnants of unique siege tools. The analysis of the spatial distribution of the militaria has opened new sources of information on the course of battles and the identity of the participating forces. The question of identity and, even more significant, the identification of local weapons has been approached, following the results of scientific studies such as DNA analysis. On the very other hand, simple weapons, like the ballista balls, bear signs of a production process that partly took place at the site of siege.

Unlike the First Revolt, the Bar Kokhba Revolt did not enjoy the close attention of an ancient historian. Nonetheless, in the last two years a survey of the central sector of the Judaean Desert has yielded a wealth of military equipment. The context of the finds and their nature unveil both sides’ fighting strategies. The rebels sought shelter in remote refuge caves, which required the Romans to engage in utterly different siege warfare. Where the historical accounts are silent, the tracing of the equipment in situ has enabled us to illustrate the systematic Roman suppress of the revolt.